Shanidar was home to a group of Neanderthals in Iraq. Scientists have discovered Neanderthal skeletons in a cave there. One skeleton has captured the scientists’ imaginations. He is called the “Old Man of Shanidar.” Actually, the “old man” was only 45 years old. That was very old in those days. He had lived a hard life. One arm was withered and useless. One of his eyes had been damaged. And he had head injuries. Most Neanderthals died before they reached 35. And yet he was buried with

remains at their campsites. These things tell us that Homo sapiens had more skills than Neanderthals. And they looked different. Their foreheads did not jut over their eyes. Their lower jaws did not push forward. Their faces were straighter. They had smaller noses and jaws. Their bones were lighter. They moved more freely. Because they were so skillful, Homo sapiens were able to survive in harsh conditions. They hunted and gathered food. They built shelters and made warm clothes. Many were

figured out how to make fire. They rubbed two sticks together. The sticks grew warm. Soon a spark flew off. They found they could make sparks with stone as well. The sparks caught grass or wood on fire. When they made their own fires, they could stay warm. They could watch the flickering flames at night and have light. Later they found out they could cook their food. (Maybe someone accidentally dropped some meat in the fire.) And best of all, fire scared away hungry animals that prowled in the

startled him. The cave was covered in art. There were deer, wild boar, and bison. He was convinced the art was between 11,000 and 19,000 years old! People flocked to the cave. Then trouble began. Experts questioned Don Marcelino’s conclusions. Some even thought the paintings were fake. They claimed his friends painted the pictures. When Don Marcelino died, people still doubted his discovery. The king of Spain even visited. Experts continued to study the cave. Nearly 15 years after Don

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